Ayatollah Khamenei belongs to the generation of clerics who became radicalized in the 1960s due to the secularizing modernization of the Shah and his policy of creeping de-islamization of society. The more or less implicit recognition of Israel by the Shah and his increasingly radical refusal to recognize the Shia clergy as a key group in society led the latter to harden their anti-Shah posture as well as their anti-imperialist and anti-Western attitude. In 1963, in Qom, protests instigated by Ayatollah Khomeini were held against the agrarian reform, but also against women’s rights and Iran’s turn towards secularization. Iran-backed Ansar Allah…


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